SET: Critical Minerals : Rare Earth Elements(Rev.2) 1510:00( 15102025) :
CIVIL SERVICES (PRELIMS), 2026
Topic : NCMM: RARE EARTH ELEMENTS (for G S
Papers) {Prepared on 15 .10.2025 }
For Study purpose only
NB: For any doubts clarification, please refer to the recommended text books
QUESTIONS FOR FOR UPSC(CSE)(Prelims)
Exams.2026
Introduction :
India aims to reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP by 45% by 2030 (from 2005 levels), achieve 50% of its electric power capacity from non-fossil sources by 2030, and reach net-zero emissions by 2070. To achieve these climate goals, the National Critical Mineral Mission (NCMM) plays a vital role by building a resilient and self-reliant ecosystem for critical minerals. The mission focuses on boosting domestic production, encouraging private sector participation, strengthening international partnerships, and streamlining regulations to ensure a steady supply of minerals essential for clean energy technologies.
Critical minerals are essential for India’s economic development and national security, and their lack of availability or concentration in a few geographical
locations can lead to supply chain vulnerabilities.
In the era of the industrial revolution 4.0, human activities are highly dependent on machines and environmentally friendly technology. Under these conditions, rare earth alloy permanent magnets have a very crucial role. Several technological applications such as wind- powered power plants, electricity-based transportation, and solid state disk (SSD)-based data storage have rare earth metal magnet components .
NATIONAL CRITICAL MINERAL MISSION (NCMM) : -
Government of India has launched the National Critical Mineral Mission (NCMM) in 2025 to establish an effective framework for India's self-reliance in the critical mineral sector. Under the NCMM, Geological Survey of India (GSI) has been assigned to carry out 1200 exploration projects from 2024-25 to 2030-31.
In order to reduce the import dependency of Rare Earth Elements (REE), Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMD) is carrying out exploration to augment resources of REE along the coastal / inland / riverine placer sands of the country for augmentation of heavy mineral resource, which include monazite (a phosphate mineral containing Th and REE) and xenotime (a phosphate mineral of yttrium and REE) as well as in several potential geological domains (hard rock) of the country. Further, during the last three years (2021-22 to 2023-24), GSI has taken up 368 mineral exploration projects on critical minerals including Rare Earth Elements (REE) and for 2024-25, GSI has taken up 195 exploration projects to assess the mineral potential of critical minerals including REE specified in Part D of First Schedule of the MMDR Amendment Act, 2023.
IREL (India) Limited (IREL), a Public Sector Undertaking (PSU) under Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) has been mandated to produce Rare Earth Elements in the form of high pure Rare Earth Oxides from Rare Earths (RE) bearing mineral Monazite in India. IREL has been operating in three locations having the facility for integrated mining and processing of mineral sands and a facility each for extraction and refining of rare earths. With the grant of Letter of Intent (LoI) for three more reserve deposits in different geographies of India, the domestic production is planned to be enhanced.
The Department of Atomic Energy has explored 1,11,845 tonne in-situ Rare Earth Elements Oxide (REO) in hard rock terrains in parts of Balotra (erstwhile Barmer) district, Rajasthan
As a part of functioning of IREL, IREL undertakes economic feasibility of mining of Rare Earths before taking up mining operations at each location.
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IREL (INDIA) LTD.:
IREL (India) Limited, the erstwhile Indian Rare Earths Limited was incorporated on August 18,1950, with its first unit Rare Earths Division (RED), Aluva, in Kerala. It became a full-fledged Government of India Undertaking under the administrative control of Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) in year 1963
and took over companies engaged in mining and separation of Atomic Minerals in southern part of the country at Chavara, Kerala and the other at Manavalakurichi (MK), Tamilnadu. IREL commissioned its largest flagship Mining & Mineral separation unit Orissa Sands Complex (OSCOM) at Chatrapur, Odisha in 1986. Presently IREL has established plant capacity of about 10 lakhs tons per annum of minerals processing to produce processed minerals i.e. Ilmenite, Rutile, Zircon, Sillimanite and Garnet. IREL has also set up a Rare Earths Extraction Plant at Odisha to produce about 11,000 ton of Rare Earth Concentrate in terms of RE Chloride and associated products. A RE refining plant at RED, Aluva is operational to produce separated High Pure Rare Earths Oxide. IREL has also established a Rare Earth Metal and Titanium Theme Park in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh. IREL is a profit-making CPSE since 1997-98 with its sales turnover reaching a peak exceeding Rs.20248.97 million in 2023-24, with an export component of about Rs.9625.82 million. IREL is also in the process of facilitating setting up of industries in the value chain of minerals and rare earths, besides expanding its existing mineral producing capacities. IREL has in house R&D division at Kollam, Kerala to support mineral and chemical operation and Corporate Office at Mumbai, Maharashtra.
BHOPAL:
IREL has established the futuristic concept of Rare Earth Metal and Titanium Theme Park at Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh. The Theme Park consists of Pilot Plant based on laboratory scale technologies developed by BARC demonstration of the technologies to develop confidence of budding entrepreneurs and startups which in turn will result in enhancing production and consumption of Rare Earths within the country and facilitate setting up of commercial plants the Rare Earth sector. Mini-Plants to demonstrate production of metals of Lanthanum, Cerium, Neodymium facility for recovery of Rare Earths from end of life Magnets, LED & Lamp Phosphor as well as Titanium chain have been established.
Critical Minerals include Rare Earths:
Critical materials which include Rare Earths whose production is vital for energy and national security are the prime mandate of IREL. To fulfil this objective other minerals which inter alia include Ilmenite and Garnet with major share in the mineral assemblage need continuous evacuation. Industries in the titanium value chain are major consumers of Ilmenite. The end-user market has been subdued and the prices moved southwards as the year progressed.
Besides Ilmenite, Zircon and Rutile which find usage in infrastructure and construction industries are other major contributors to the revenue of IREL. Though the thrust by the Government of India on infrastructure and housing through initiatives like PM Gatishakti and PMAY was expected to give a flip to the demand for these products, the damp international scenario has resulted in the demand and prices being rangebound. Refractory industry, which use Sillimanite as one of the inputs, continues to be dependent on the fortunes of Steel industry which are closely tied with the cheaper imports from neighbouring country. Market for Garnet continues to be subdued owing to the continued logistic problems emanating from the Middle East turmoil (in 2023-24)
Despite the importance of Rare Earths in meeting the Zero emission target by 2070 and IREL’s capability in making refined individual Rare Earths available for
the downstream industry, the Rare Earth ecosystem is yet to take off in India(news in 2023) Though the demand for magnetic Rare Earths will be on a sustainable basis going forward, challenges in evacuating other bulk Rare Earths that come out as byproducts persist due to limited applications side demand vis-à-vis production
The focus of India on green investment towards emission reduction, energy independence and energy transition from conventional to renewal, has brought the role of critical materials including Rare Earths into the limelight. While IREL is geared up to meet the raw material requirement for meeting the global commitment of the Country for reducing and subsequently eliminating the carbon footprint, the mid-stream industries in the Rare Earth sector are yet to take off. Thus, the domestic market for IREL’s products in the said sector is almost non-existent. Globally, the take-off of the EV market has not happened as expected leading to more supply and lesser demand for Rare Earths
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Role of Geological Survey of India :
Under the National Critical Mineral Mission, GSI has prioritized and intensified its exploration activities for critical and strategic minerals across the country including Rajasthan, with an aim to find out potential mineralized locales as well as to establish more resources for these minerals. During the current FS 2024-25, GSI has taken up 195 exploration projects including 35 projects in Rajasthan, to assess the mineral potential of strategic and critical minerals.
The mission seeks to minimize import dependency by enhancing domestic exploration and mining efforts. More than 100 critical mineral blocks are set to be auctioned, and exploration will be expanded to offshore regions rich in polymetallic nodules containing cobalt, rare earth elements (REEs), nickel, and manganese.
Since MMDR Amendment Act, 2015, GSI has established resource of REE in Barmer and Sikar districts of Rajasthan. GSI has handed over one resource bearing geological report (GR) on REE, one Geological Memorandums (GM) on REE and one GM on tungsten for auctioning.
============================================= KABIL:
A joint venture company namely Khanij Bidesh India Ltd. (KABIL) has been incorporated with the equity contribution from three Central Public Sector Enterprises namely, National Aluminium Company Ltd, Hindustan Copper Ltd and Mineral Exploration and Consultancy Ltd with the objective to ensure consistent supply of critical and strategic minerals to Indian domestic market. On basis of commissioned study and selection criteria, KABIL has initiated engagement with several state owned organizations of the shortlisted source countries through Ministry of External Affairs and the Indian Embassies in countries like Argentina and Australia to acquire mineral assets overseas primarily the critical & strategic minerals.
============================================================ 2023:
The Central Government has further amended the Mines and Minerals Development and Regulation Act, 1957 (MMDR Act, 1957) through the MMDR Amendment Act, 2023, whereby 24 critical and strategic minerals have been inserted in part D to the Schedule-I of the MMDR Act, 1957 which have been identified as critical and strategic minerals for the country. Further, the amended Act has also empowered Central Government to auction critical and strategic minerals blocks. Government of India has launched first tranche of auction of these minerals on 29th November, 2023 for 20 blocks
============================================================== Usage of Critical Minerals:-
Critical minerals are essential components of various clean energy technologies and industries. Theirimportance can be highlighted across different sectors:
1)Solar Energy : Critical minerals such as silicon, tellurium, indium, and gallium are vital for the production of photovoltaic (PV) cells used in solar panels.India’s current solar capacity of 64 GW is heavily dependent on these minerals.
2)Wind Energy : Rare earth elements like dysprosium and neodymium are used in permanent magnets for wind turbines. India aims to increase its wind energy capacity from 42 GW to 140 GW by 2030, necessitating a stable supply of these minerals.
3)Electric Vehicles : Lithium, nickel, and cobalt are key materials used in lithium-ion batteries. Under the National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NEMMP), India plans to deploy 6–7 million EVs by 2024, leading to increased demand for these critical minerals.
4)Energy Storage: Lithium-ion batteries used in advanced energy storage systems depend on lithium, cobalt, and nickel.
Objectives of NCCM :
1)To secure India’s critical mineral supply chain by ensuring mineral availability from domestic and foreign sources.
2)Strengthening the value chains by enhancing technological, regulatory, and financial ecosystems to foster innovation, skill development, and global competitiveness in mineral exploration, mining, beneficiation, processing, and recycling.
========================================================= RARE EARTH ELEMENTS :
Rare earths are silvery-gray metals. There are 17 of them, ranging from lanthanum (atomic number 57) to lutetium (atomic number 71), and most of them are in their own row in the periodic table because of their unusual atomic structure. Their arrangement of electrons can give them remarkable properties such as luminescence—used for the screens of smartphones—and magnetism. They are often added to other metals in small amounts to enhance their performance; magnets with rare earths can be 15 times as powerful as those without them. China has effectively blocked exports of the following rare earths:
samarium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, scandium, yttrium and lutetium.
The rare-earth elements comprise Scandium and Yttrium from Group 3 of the Periodic Table plus the Lanthanoids (IUPAC)/Lanthanides (widely used), comprising the elements from Lanthanum to Lutetium
Note: Number of Rare-earth Elements: There are between 15 and 17 of them (depending how you classify them), including such exotic sounding substances as holmium, praseodymium, cerium, lutetium, ytterbium, gadolinium or - promethium.
The elements are far from rare and have considerable differences in their chemistry. They need a mnemonic as an aid to memory. One such published in “Chemistry in Australia” reads “Little Cute People Need Plenty Sex Every Given Time Despite Having Enough Through Young Love” and serves the purpose for the lanthanoids (to know the names of rare earth elements)
Neodymium (NdFeB) permanent magnets are vital for propulsion systems in electric vehicles and generators in renewable energy infrastructure, are forecast to witness substantial market expansion, thereby underlining the significance of indigenous production capabilities. This expansion, thereby underlining the significance of indigenous production capabilities. This program aligns with international efforts to mitigate climate change and promote renewable energy sources, including solar and wind power.The neodymium magnets used in hybrid cars, for example, work less well at high temperatures when recycled neodymium is used.
Dysprosium is one of the rarer rare earth elements, so Hono is reducing the amount of the element in the permanent magnets used in hybrid cars.
“Rare earth” is an alternative name for the lanthanides – elements 57 to 71 – plus yttrium and scandium, and despite the name most of them were not considered rare at all.
The rare earths have a unique place among the elements. Although very much alike chemically and in most physical properties they each have very different and striking magnetic properties. The reason, of course, lies in their 4f electrons which determine the magnetic properties but have little effect on
other chemical and physical behaviour. Although they are not rare, some indeed are among the more common heavy elements in the earth's crust, the difficulty of separation has meant that their intricate magnetic properties have only recently been unravelled
1) What are rare earth elements?
The rare earth elements (REE) in the periodic table are a set of seventeen metallic elements. These include the fifteen lanthanides on the periodic table plus scandium and yttrium. Rare earth elements aren't actually all that rare. These materials are naturally occurring, though there are some areas that have higher concentrations of these materials in the ground.
In the magnet world, we're mostly interested in neodymium and dysprosium. Neodymium is in the more abundant, light rare earths category, while dysprosium is a more rare, heavy rare earth material.
Discovery of the Elements :
1)The lanthanoid elements were first discovered in 1787 AD when Carl Axel Arrhenius identified the mineral “ytterbite” near Ytterby, Sweden.
Significant chemists involved in the discoveries were Johann Gadolin (yttrium), Ekeberg (isolated beryllium from ytterbite), Berzelius and Hisinger (cerium), Klaproth (cerium), Mosander (didymia, lanthanum, terbium and erbium), Berlin (erbium oppositely named terbium by Mosander), Delafontaine (terbium oppositely named erbium by Mosander), Boisbaudran (samarium, gadolinium and europium), Marignac (gadolinium), Crookes (europium), Demar¸cay (europium), Moseley (identified element 61, promethium had yet to be discovered), Spedding (separated and purified the lanthanoids and actinoids in the Manhattan project).
Why they are called as ‘rare earth elements’ ?
The term “rare earths” is a misnomer, as the elements are far from rare in crustal abundance, though it may well reflect public ignorance of them. The most abundant is cerium, which is present in similar amounts to zinc and copper, and is more prevalent than lead or tin, as indeed are lanthanum, neodymium, yttrium and (surprisingly) the very expensive scandium. Even the least abundant, thulium, has a greater prevalence than mercury, bismuth and cadmium, none of which are considered rare
They are known as "rare" because it is very unusual to find them in a pure form, but it turns out there are deposits of some of them all over the world - cerium, for example, is the 25th most common element on the planet.
They are grouped together as a family because of their incredible chemical similarities - the reason it took a century of chemical investigation to finally isolate them all. But the rare earths' chemical similarity belies all sorts of fascinating and often very useful electro-magnetic and optical differences.
But the optical properties of the rare earths do more than just deter forgers. The distinctive green light in a television or computer screen is generated using terbium, while the red colour is produced by a combination of europium and yttrium (which is often treated as an honorary member of the rare earths).
Light produced by ‘erbium’:
But the most useful rare earth - in optical terms - is probably erbium. The light produced by erbium is out in the near-infrared spectrum and is invisible to the human eye. But it can send signals down optical fibres for many kilometres, which is why most of the optical fibre applications around the world use signal amplifiers made with erbium.
Rare earths are also essential for the catalytic converters that scrub the exhaust gases of cars clean and in glass polishing.
Monazite :
The principal rare-earth ores are monazite, bastnaesite and xenotime. Monazite is mainly a light rare earth (La, Ce, Pr and Nd) phosphate (93–94%). It is often a component of mineral sands, which are primarily a source of ilmenite, rutile and zircon
Why they are called as Lanthanoids ?
Lanthanoids (These are fourteen elements following Lanthanum )
Lanthanum closely resembles the lanthanoids, it is usually included in any discussion of the lanthanoids for which the general symbol Ln is often used.
The lanthanoids resemble one another more closely than do the members of ordinary transition elements in any series. They have only one stable oxidation state and their chemistry provides an excellent opportunity to examine the effect of small changes in size and nuclear charge along a series of otherwise similar elements.
1)All the lanthanoids are silvery white soft metals and tarnish rapidly in air. 2)The hardness increases with increasing atomic number, Samarium being steel hard. Their melting points range between 1000 to 1200 K but Samarium melts at 1623 K.
3)They have typical metallic structure and are good conductors of heat and electricity.
4)Density and other properties change smoothly except for Eu and Yb and occasionally for Sm and Tm.
5)Many trivalent lanthanoid ions are coloured both in the solid state and in aqueous solutions. Colour of these ions may be attributed to the presence of f electrons
Uses :
1)The best single use of the lanthanoids is for the production of alloy steels for plates and pipes. A well known alloy is Mischmetall which consists of a lanthanoid metal (~ 95%) and iron (~ 5%) and traces of S, C, Ca and Al.
2)A good deal of Mischmetall is used in Mg-based alloy to produce bullets, shell and lighter flint. Mixed oxides of lanthanoids are employed as catalysts in petroleum cracking.
3)Some individual Ln oxides are used as phosphors in television screens and similar fluorescing surfaces.
Discovery:
1)The lanthanoid elements were first discovered in the year1787 when Carl Axel Arrhenius identified the mineral “ytterbite” near Ytterby, Sweden
2) List of Scientists who discovered rare earth elements :- i)Johann Gadolin (yttrium),
ii)Ekeberg (isolated beryllium from ytterbite),
iii)Berzelius and Hisinger (cerium),
iv)Klaproth (cerium),
v)Mosander (didymia, lanthanum, terbium and erbium),
vi)Berlin (erbium oppositely named terbium by Mosander),
vii)Delafontaine (terbium oppositely named erbium by Mosander), viii)Boisbaudran (samarium, gadolinium and europium),
ix)Marignac (gadolinium),
x)Crookes (europium),
xi)Demar¸cay (europium),
xii)Moseley (identified element 61, promethium had yet to be discovered),
xiii)Spedding (separated and purified the lanthanoids and actinoids in the Manhattan project).
Rare Earth Elements and their uses:
1)Mischmetal : Mischmetal typically includes approximately 50% cerium and 25% lanthanum, with smaller amounts of neodymium and praseodymium. It is used for the deoxygenation and desulfurisation of steel and in the flint ignition device of many lighters and torches.
2)Scandium/aluminium alloy (0.1–0.5% Sc) provides considerably more strength to areas affected by heat, e.g. welded joints, and is also used in baseball bats and bicycle frames. However, its main use is in some aerospace parts, particularly in Russian MiG 21 and MiG 29 aircraft. Scandium compounds are used in high-intensity discharge lamps and light bulbs, and scandium triflate is used in organic synthesis as a strong Lewis acid catalyst.
3)Yttrium has its primary application in TV screens where Y2O3 is combined with europium and this combination is also used in LEDs. Cerium and terbium are also used in LED television screens as phosphor components. The green terbium phosphor is used in combination with blue and red europium phosphors, creating the technology used in trichromatic lighting. Erbium is also combined with europium isotopes to provide specific fluorescent properties. Neodymium also has application in fluorescent technology.
Laser Technology : Neodymium, samarium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium and ytterbium have applications in lasers in both commercial and military uses, optical cables, medical and dental lasers and in solid-state lasers where Nd-doped yttrium aluminium garnet (Nd:YAG) is in use.
Alloys : As for scandium (aforementioned), rare earths have found application
in alloying with other metals, where small amounts add strength to many metals. Thus, Y is used in Al and Mg alloys, Ce in aluminium and Fe alloys, and La and Yb in steel alloys. Pr is used as an alloying agent for metals in aircraft engines, Gd is present in metal alloys to resist high temperature and Tb in several alloys, such as the magnetostrictive alloy Terfenol-d.
Magnets :Permanent magnet is a crucial material for the development of electronics and telecommunications technology nowadays.
Monazite is a mineral that is found in several regions such as China, Australia, and even Southeast Asia, so this mineral is the main source of LTJ elements for permanent magnet materials.Nowdays, China is the country that has the largest rare earth mineral reserves in the world and dominates nearly 60% of global rare earth production with total production reaching 20,000 tons in 2019.
In an Nd-Fe-B magnet, there are several LTJ elements such as neodymium (Nd), dysprosium (Dy), praseodymium ( Pr), and lanthanum (La) depending on the type of application of the Nd-FeB magnet
The first magnets using the rare earths neodymium and scandium were developed only in 1982, but their discovery has revolutionised all sorts of technologies.The tiny motors that power computer hard drives and the miniature speakers on mobile phones and laptops depend on rare-earth magnets.
Neodymium magnets are used in electric guitar pickups, MRI scanners and microwave ovens. You can even buy cufflinks that link up with neodymium magnets.
The stronger the magnets, the easier it is to generate power at lower speeds. An electric current is generated by induction - the electrons are driven as a magnet moves past a coil of wire. The stronger the magnet, the more the electrons move.
Nd2Fe14B is the strongest permanent magnetic material currently known, and is used in electric motors in hybrid vehicles, microphones, loudspeakers, headphones and computer hard disks and in wind turbines for power generation. Dy has been added to Nd2Fe14B to improve its magnetic properties and Pr for anticorrosion properties. SmCo5 has application in some magnets and was the strongest magnet known prior to Nd2Fe14B. Ho has the highest magnetic strength of all elements and is used as a component in powerful magnets.
Superconductors : Both yttrium and thulium have found application in high-temperature superconductors, e.g. YBa2CuII 3−δ CuIII δ O6.5+0.5δ. Despite the excitement caused by their discovery, it seems that a rise in the critical temperature is needed before there are wide applications.Both yttrium
and thulium have found application in high-temperature superconductors, e.g. YBa2CuII 3−δ CuIII δ O6.5+0.5δ. Despite the excitement caused by their discovery, it seems that a rise in the critical temperature is needed before there are wide applications.
Batteries: A major use of lanthanum is in nickel metal hydride batteries in hybrid vehicles where approximately 8–10 kg of the metal is used. While Pm has little use due to its radioactivity, it is used in nuclear batteries and has potential to be used as a power source in space vehicles and satellites.
Medical: The properties of many rare earths lend themselves to a variety of medical uses. Yttrium radioisotopes have been used in the treatment of cancers such as lymphoma, leukaemia, ovarian, pancreatic and bone cancers. A radioactive isotope of Sm can be used to treat severe pain associated with bone cancers. Europium is used in screening for genetic diseases, such as Down’s Syndrome. Probably most importantly, gadolinium, due to its strongly paramagnetic properties (seven unpaired electrons), is extensively used in MRI imaging. Although highly stable complexes, generally macrocylic, are used, evidence of Gd toxicity leading to nephrogenic systemic fibrosis, particularly in patients with impaired renal function, has emerged
Ceramics: A very large amount of cerium is used as a ceramic component in the catalytic converter of automobiles, and is the largest use of rare earths in the US. Yttria-stabilised zirconia is a thermally stable refractory, a solid electrolyte in fuel cells and is used for oxygen sensing. The introduction of yttria stabilises the high temperature cubic form of zirconia
Mischmetal uses: As noted, mischmetal (comprising ca 50% cerium and 25% lanthanum with smaller amounts of praseodymium and neodymium) has found widespread usage in the flints of cigarette lighters and other fire starters. More important is its metallurgical use
Glass colouring and decolouring: The pale green colour of praseodymium has been used to colour cubic zirconias and glasses. Er2O3 in sunglasses increases colour perception. By contrast, CeO2 is used as a decolourant in glass
Uses in nuclear reactors: Samarium, gadolinium, dysprosium and holmium have all found application in nuclear reactors due to their ability to absorb neutrons arising from nuclear fission
Critical defence uses of rare-earth elements: Military applications have been found for many of the rare-earth metals and while some substitutes have been found for these critical metals, they are generally not as effective. Military uses include: Lanthanum in night vision goggles, neodymium in laser range-finders, guidance systems, communications and magnets, europium in fluorescent and phosphorescent materials, erbium in fibre-optic data transmission and samarium
in permanent magnets, guided weapons and in stealth technology.
Uses of rare earths as pollution control ceramics in automobiles, as permanent magnets and rechargeable batteries are certain to increase as demand for electric and hybrid automobiles, computers, electronics and portable equipment expands. For example, the market for cerium and neodymium in automobile catalytic converters and petroleum refining catalysts is expected to grow by 6–8% per year.
The use of rare earths in magnets is expected to increase by 10–16% per year in the immediate future.49 The growth of rare earths in rechargeable NiMH batteries, mostly for hybrid vehicles, will expand similarly. Increased use in portable equipment, such as camcorders, cellular telephones, compact disc players, digital cameras, digital video disc players, laptop computers and MPEG audio-layer players will also mean a greater requirement of NiMH batteries.
Further developments that will ensure increased rare earth use are applications such as fibre optics, medical applications including dental and surgical lasers, magnetic resonance imaging, medical contrast agents, medical isotopes and positron emission tomography scintillation detectors. The use of rare-earth alloys in magnetic refrigeration is also expected to contribute to greater rare-earth requirements. New bulk uses, particularly in corrosion inhibitors, and also in animal feed supplements, would greatly increase demand, and increase the viability of the many startup mining projects in Australia
Many lanthanoid ions have luminescent properties, which are employed in numerous applications as sensors and in bioimaging, and as phosphors. The most common lanthanoid ions used are Eu3+ (red), Tb3+ (green) and Eu2+ (blue-red depending on the environment). Holmium salts spectacularly change colour from pale yellow to red with appropriate irradiation. Due to the f-f transitions being Laporte forbidden, excitation of lanthanoid ions can be indirectly approached by using the so-called antennae effect where a ligand is capable of absorbing and being excited by UV light.
US-China trade war :
China currently dominates the production of separated rare-earth element output with a greater than 60% share, although it has less than one half of global rare-earth resources. Surprisingly, perhaps, a lack of global recycling incentives and poor collection methods contribute to a low rare-earth recycling rate estimated in 2013 to be less than 1%. Typically, the potential
recyclable sources of rare-earth elements consist of pre-consumer scrap/residue, industrial residues, end-of-life products and tailings dams or landfill (waste residue) sites.
There have been notable developments in the geo-politics of the rare earths. In 2019, as part of the US–China trade war, China has threatened to cut off rare-earth exports to the US.
In 2025 also the same arguments are going on.
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